UNIT- III DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE AND SCHOOL EDUCATION

 

UNIT- III DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE AND SCHOOL EDUCATION

Disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical approaches in school subjects- Pedagogical concerns of disciplinary knowledge at different stages of school education – Core subjects in school curriculum: Languages, Social Science, Humanities, Science, Maths, Art and Craft, Work Education, Peace Education, Life Skills Education, Health and Physical Education and Value Education; Need for reframing school subjects; Recent development in school subjects

 

Meaning of School Subjects

 A school subject is a subject or a field of study as well as a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the school, college or university level.

School subject refers to an area of knowledge that is studied in school. It can be called a learning tool or the criteria by which we learn. More precisely, subjects are the parts into which learning can be divided.

It is a field or sphere of knowledge in which the learner has chosen to specialize. It can sometimes be used synonymously with the term ‘discipline’ and can be referred to as a systematic instruction given to the students in a particular area of learning that follows specific code of conduct.

Humanist educators argue that school subjects are created to provide students with intrinsically rewarding experiences that contribute to the pursuit of self-actualization, personal growth, and individual freedom. School subjects, therefore, need to be formulated according to the interest, attitudes, and developmental stages of individual student & they need to derive content from a wide range of sources such as personal experiences, human activities, and community cultures and wisdoms.

Disciplinary knowledge might or might not be useful for the formation of school subjects. From the perspective of social efficiency, school subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the requisite knowledge, skills, and capital & the formation of school subjects, therefore, is justified with close reference to the needs of occupation, profession, and vocation. Specialized and applied -fields (e.g., engineering, accounting, and marketing,) among others, therefore, are the primary sources from which the contents of school subjects are derived.

School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might lead to emancipation and engender social agency. The formation of school subjects is based upon an examination of social contents, social issues, and futures, with the intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own analyses, standpoints, and actions. Like humanistic educators, social reconstructionist believes that schools subjects derive contents from a wide range of sources.

Definition for School Subject

A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities (Karmon, 2007).

“A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.”

School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, history, geography, physics, chemistry and economics. Academic school subjects, such as mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics, are to be compulsorily taught to the students. The content of these academic subjects needs to be worked with and transformed by the teachers in such a way that it is appropriate for classroom teaching. Constructing a school subject involves the selection and arrangement of content of knowledge, skills and the transformation of that content for school and classroom use. This is in accordance with respect to both societal expectations and activities of teaching.

Disciplinary Knowledge

Disciplinary content knowledge can be thought of as an individual's understanding of subject matter concepts and how these concepts relate to form the larger body of knowledge. 

Disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical approaches in school subjects

For developing an understanding of the pedagogical approaches specific to disciplinary knowledge of different school subjects at school level, the disciplinary knowledge of the subjects taught at different school levels along with specific pedagogical approaches

School Subjects	Disciplinary Knowledge	Pedagogical Approaches
Social Science	v  Citizenship education § Reflective socio-political enquiry  § Informed social criticism and ethical decision making to social issues § Social dynamism, mobility and transformation § Believe in constitutional values like democracy, justice, and equality § Personal engagement and development  § Culture – Local, National, and Global § People, place, and environment  § Individual development and identity  § Individuals, groups, and Institutions  § Power, authority, and governance § Production, distribution, and society § Science, technology, and society § Global connections § Civic ideas and practices § Social research and innovations	v Reflecting on one’s own experience of various social and political situations § Observing various social and political situations and engaging in critical political inquiry § Case analysis of individuals and institutions § Field visit to places of historical, social, and political importance § Classroom debate and discussion on concepts and ideas § Peer and group interaction § Individual and group projects and assignments § Use of portfolios and maintaining rubrics for assessment
Science	§Scientific literacy § Science in everyday situations § Understanding the world around the learners § Socio-scientific issues § Sources in and outside schooling § Science as a way of knowing, thinking, and acting § Matters in our surroundings. § Atoms and Molecules § Diversities in living organism § Forces and laws of motion § Work and energy § Natural resources and its management § Improvement in food resources § Acid and chemical reactions  § Metals and non-metals § Life processes  § How do organisms produce?  § Heredity and evolution  § Electricity  § Scientific research and innovations	§ Scientific inquiry to understand every day experiences § Observation, discovery and experimentation § Repeating classic experiments in Science and discussing how inventors encountered novel scientific ideas  § Engagement in the scientific discourse § Contestation, investigation, and evidence based conclusions  § Peer and group works on scientific concepts, ideas and methods § Scientific quiz and workshop § Visiting science labs located in institutions of higher learning
Language	§ Socio-cultural issues in language learning § Construction of language knowledge during the early years of life § Age wise language development.  § Multilinguality and language learning.  § Differences between school and home language  § Usages of languages  § Language development and cognitive skills  § Language usages in diverse social households  § Development of languages § Skills development in language learning – speaking, listening, writing, reading § Teaching various texts of languages – drama/fiction, grammar, poetry, prose, narratives, etc.  § Creation and appreciation of language and literatures  § Multi and cross cultural issues of languages § Language research and current practices	§ Use of communicative approach  § Use of narratives and storytelling § Peer and group discussions and debates of academic and language issues § Engaging learners in developing language acquisition skills  § Sensitizing the learners to appreciate language creations and create their own literature § Finding out the gap between language usage at home and school § Using free response formats that allow for open ended and creative answers § Individual and group feedback and assessment

 

The disciplinary knowledge under the subjects taught at the school level with the pedagogical approaches required to transact the same knowledge. The present practices of transacting school subjects are mostly learner centred. The pedagogical approaches reflected in third column of the table has emphasized child centered learning and teacher’s place in the whole process is that of a facilitator. The pedagogical approaches need to address the disciplinary knowledge included in the subjects as a part of teaching-learning process at different stages of school education.

 

Pedagogical Concerns of Disciplinary Knowledge at Different Stages of School Education

The specific pedagogical approaches that need to be used for transacting disciplinary knowledge as a part of teaching learning process at different stages of school education is discussed here.

 

Stages of  school education	Subject Areas	Specific Pedagogical Approaches for School Areas Transacting Disciplinary Knowledge Education
Elementary	Language(s)	·         Interactive, participatory, and collaborative methods ·         Use of narratives ·         Dealing with textual exercises ·         Listening and producing oral discourses ·         Interpreting tables, graphs, diagrams, pictures, etc. ·         Theme based brainstorming ·         Use of concept mapping ·         Audio-lingual method, communicative approach, teaching diverse classroom – addressing sociopsychological factors of language learning ·         Linking reading and writing
	Social Science	·         Discovery, project, problem solving, narration, comparisons, observation dramatization, and role play ·         Utilization of the resources like; audio-visual materials, photographs, charts, maps, replicas of archaeological and material culture ·         Practice of process skills – observations, classifications, questioning, framing hypothesis, data analysis, drawing inferences, interpretation of results, reporting, etc. ·         Map reading, cartoon analysis, writing slogans, etc. ·         Conducting inquiry - discussion, field work, peer and group activities, surveys, etc. ·         Interactive, participatory, and collaborative methods
	Science	·         Conduct of activities and experiments, observation, classification, inferences, discussion, conducting inquiry, discovery, projects, etc. ·         Science-museum, field-trips, projects and exhibition ·         Probing, documenting and analyzing children’s ideas ·         Use of concept map, peer and group learning, collaborative learning ·         Engaging in joyful learning
	Mathematics	·         Preparing mathematical models ·         Use of concept map to understand Mathematics ·         Interactive, collaborative, and participatory methods ·         Understanding two and three dimensional shapes ·         Analysis and synthesis, puzzles, play, mathematical games, analyzing time-table, time-line, data handling, etc.
Secondary	Language(s)	·         Addressing multilingualism ·         Gaps between home and school languages ·         Classroom discourses – Questioning, discussion, debates, elocution, brain-storming, communication, dramatization, role pay, language games, etc. ·         Use of dictionary, encyclopaedia, and internet ·         Analyzing texts –expository vs. narrative, transactional vs. reflective ·         Note-making, summarizing, connecting reading-writing, process writing, writing to learn and understand l Analyzing texts across the curriculum ·         Flow of communication in schools and the society
	Social Science	·         Enquiry-based and problem-based learning, ·         Methods of teaching – Source, field study, folk lore, oral history, balpanchyat, mock parliament. Project, storytelling, exhibition, peer and group discussion, etc. ·         Visit to Historical, ecological, commercial, and political places ·         l Organising awareness and other important activities. Environment, social, election, blood donation, etc.
	Science	·         Use of science process skills ·         Understanding science and society ·         Enquiry and problem-based learning ·         Use of integrated, ecological, inductive, deductive, problem-solving, and constructivist approaches to learning ·         Use of lecture, discussion, debates, demonstration, field trips, individual-peer and group presentation, experimentation, scientific discovery, etc.
	Mathematics	·         Mathematical modelling, data analysis and interpretation, content analysis in Mathematics ·         Exploring connections and patterns, visualization and generalization ·          Problem-solving, inductive-deduction, analysis, synthesis, project, demonstration, Mathematical activities, Use of Mathematical laboratories, etc

 

The above table depicts specific pedagogical approaches required for teaching at the elementary and the secondary stages of school education. From the table, it is understood that most pedagogical approaches suggested for teaching subjects at different stages of school education are based upon the learner-centered approaches to learning.

Core subjects in school curriculum

 Mostly in our school system, the curriculum includes the core subjects of study that is; Languages, Social Science, Science, and Mathematics. After analyzing different stages of school education, it is found that the subjects are presented in school curriculum with different nomenclatures.

Stages of School Education			Subject Areas	Presented in School Curriculum
Elementary (I-VIII)		Lower Primary  (I-V)	Languages	Mother Tongue, Regional Languages, Hindi, English
			Social Science	Environmental Studies (EVS), that includes the themes/topics of both Science and Social Science
			Science
			Mathematics	Mathematics as independent subject of study
		Upper Primary (VI-VIII)	Languages	Mother Tongue, Regional Languages, Hindi, English
			Social Science	Study of History, Political Science, and Geography under the subject area of Social Science
			Science	Study of Physical and Natural sciences under the subject area of Science.
			Mathematics	Mathematics as an independent subject of study
Secondary (IX-X)			Languages	Mother Tongue, Regional Languages, Hindi, English
			Social Science	History, Political Science, Geography and Economics under the subject area of Social Science
			Science	Physical and Natural sciences under the subject area of Science
			Mathematics	Mathematics as an independent subject of study
Senior Secondary (XI-XII)	Streams		Languages	Studies as compulsory subject
	Arts and Humanities		History, Geography, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Psychology, Languages etc	Different branches of Arts and Humanities stream, treated as elective areas of study.
	Science		Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Botany, Zoology, etc	Different branches of Science stream, treated as elective areas of study
	Commerce		Accounting, Business Studies, Marketing, Finance, etc	Different branches of Commerce stream, treated as elective areas of study

The above table presents the core subject areas included in school curriculum. Besides the above subject areas, many other specific areas of knowledge are also included in the school timetable without integrating them in the disciplinary knowledge of school subjects.

Art and Craft Education:

 For decades, there have been debates on inclusion of Art and Craft education in school curriculum. However, no development has taken place till now. Sometimes, it is included in the school curriculum but is kept out of the core subject areas. The art and craft education needs to be an important component of learning in the school curriculum. Children need to develop skills and abilities in these areas. These areas should not be treated as mere entertaining fringe in the school curriculum. The sense of creativity, appreciation, skills, aesthetics, and value based learning opportunities are possible through art and craft education. Though there is an increasing scope for career and jobs in art and craft at the higher stages, but they are yet to be integrated in school curriculum.

Work Education:

 Work is an integral part of every individual’s life, be an adult or child. A child needs to be educated in the school for world of work. Work education needs to be included in the school curriculum as an opportunity for learning for the children and for preparation for their further life. Children learn through work at home, school, society, or work place. The inclusion of Socially Useful and Productive Work (SUPW) in school curriculum makes the children appreciate the worth of social life. It makes them disciplined, self-controlled, focused mentally, energized and emotionally balanced. But the inclusion of SUPW in the present school curriculum hardly helps the children to achieve its objectives. It needs to be effectively integrated in disciplinary knowledge of school curriculum.

Peace Education:

Unprecedented growth of violence, intolerance, fanaticism, conflicts, and discordance are the constant threats to our society. Hence, there is the need to train the children and the young adults to practice tolerance and peace at home, school, and society. In this regard, school is the important agent to include ‘Education for Peace’ in its curriculum. It essentially nurtures ethical development, inculcating the values, human rights, justice, tolerance, social responsibility, attitude and skills required for living in harmony with oneself and others. It is important to mainstream peace education in school curriculum, not limiting it to a few topics or subjects. It should be presented in the contents across the subjects of the curriculum in various forms like stories, narrations, activities, interactions, etc. The inclusion of peace education in school curriculum may help the children understand the importance of peace in life.

Life Skills Education:

Life skills education has also been neglected in school curriculum. The aim of education is not to provide learners merely disciplinary knowledge and certify them, but also to acquaint them with life skills and values. “Nurturing Life Skills” includes developing an improved self-esteem, building empathy towards others and different cultures, etc. improving on their critical and creative thinking and making them better at problem solving with a balanced approach towards decision making.

Sometimes, it is difficult to assess attainment of life skills as most of them require to be assessed in qualitative form. They can only be observed and qualitative description of student performance on these skills may be done. There is the need of including core life skills in the topics of various subjects of the school curriculum. They should be necessarily an integral part of core curriculum.

Health and Physical Education:

 Health and physical education has a significant contribution to the physical, social and emotional development of a child. It constitutes an important component of school education. The NCF (2005) therefore, recommends health and physical education at all levels of schooling with special attention to vulnerable social groups and girl children. Introducing Yoga is also another important addition to health and physical education. Yoga, health and physical education need to be part of core curriculum. Time for yoga, games and sports in school curriculum must not be reduced, rather enhanced.

Value Education:

Like life skills education, there is also a need to incorporate value education in the school curriculum. ‘The aims of education are landscaped in the guiding principles of constitution which reflect a commitment to democracy and the values of equality, justice, freedom, concern for others’ well-being, secularism, respect for human dignity, and human rights. Education should aim to inculcate these values, which are based on reason and understanding. The curriculum, therefore, should provide adequate experience and space for dialogue and discourse in the school to promote such a commitment in children. The concept of value education in school curriculum is not new. Almost all the education committees and commissions have recommended for inclusion of value education in curriculum, especially at the school level. The Central Board of Secondary Education as well as State Boards of School Education have tried to incorporate constitutional and other personal and social values in their curriculum, but still they seem to be inadequate in the curriculum. There is the need of integration of constitutional and other values across the subjects in the curriculum at all level of school education.

 

Need of Reframing School Subjects

Since the mid-1970s the Government of Hong Kong has ‘initiated a series of reforms to broaden the curriculum to meet the political, social, and educational needs of Hong Kong. New school subjects of cross-curricular nature were introduced, such as social studies (1975) and integrated science (1976). Again another initiative had also been taken for ‘infusion of cross-curricular themes across the school subjects in China with an intention to promote civic, moral, sex and environmental education’. The above two examples depict that as and when the Government requires its citizens to acquire certain type of knowledge, it ensures that the same knowledge is taught at the school, and included in the school curriculum. In India, it has been observed that time and again the contents of school subjects have changed, and even new subjects have been included in school curriculum. Recently ‘Yoga and Health Education’ have been made a compulsory subject/component of study at the school and teacher education institutions in India. The sociopolitical system of the country also influences reframing subjects in school. Apart from the above reasons, new knowledge, new concepts, new areas of study, need for micro study, etc. necessitate reframing of new subjects. For example, the new areas of study, i.e., ‘Bio-Informatics’, ‘Microbiology’, ‘Biochemistry’, or ‘Biotechnology’ Bio-Engineering’, etc. emerge from the parent discipline of ‘Biology’; ‘Astro-Physics’, ‘Nano-Technology’, ‘Electronics’ etc. from ‘Physics’; and ‘Computer Science’, Information and Communication Technology’, etc. from ‘Mathematics’. Moreover, many ‘new subjects’ have also emerged from the cross and multi disciplinary areas of studies.

 Reframing school subjects and introducing new subjects in the school curriculum is a continuous process.

·         Socio political system, culture and economy of the country, the form of government in the country determine reframing of school subjects.

·         Emergence of new areas of knowledge, concepts, theories, and practices from the parent disciplines determine reframing of subjects.

·         Scope for further higher education, career, job opportunities, demands in global market influence reframing and introduction of new subjects in schools.

·         Change in pedagogical practices and approaches necessitate reframing of the subjects in curriculum.

·         Skills development, inculcation of values, community living, etc. are other factors for reframing school subjects.

·         Academic disciplines with vast knowledge base may give rise to new areas of study or subject.

Recent Development in School Subjects

School education acts as a foundation for higher education. Therefore, it has been developed through various researches. Some of the recent changes are:

Ø  Equitable Education

Ø  Active Learning Methodology

Ø  Students’ Assignments

Ø  Modern Curriculum

Ø  Innovation of Evaluation

Equitable Education

Tamilnadu Uniform System of School Education or Equitable education system is a School Education Department of Government of Tamilnadu, India programme to integrate the various school educational systems within the state. There were 1.2 crore students in four streams of school education comprising about 45,000 state board schools, 11,000 matriculation schools, 25 oriental schools and 50 Anglo-Indian schools with different syllabus, textbooks and schemes of examinations. Uniform system of school education paves way for quality education to all children without any discrimination based on their economic, social or cultural background.

Active Learning Methodology

The Active Learning Methodology is the current breakthrough in learning and teaching. Ancient teaching was seen as a teacher-centered method. In this method, only that teacher is active but the students are inactive (passive listeners). This method is likely to cause a recession in students’ learning. But the active learning approach, which is currently in practice, is based on the student-centered teaching method. This method engages the students in the teaching of the teacher. The teacher and the students are very active. In this way, students develop skills such as reading, drawing, discussion and writing.

Students’ Assignments

In ancient teaching, the teacher would ask the students to learn and write the topic, which was discussed on that day. Nowadays, teachers urge students to do leaaon and general activities to strengthen the students’ learning process and develop students’ ability to explore, observe, reason and explain. For example, mini project, models and collection of materials.

Modern Curriculum

In ancient times, the curriculum and the ideas found in it were all created with the teacher’s activities or courses in mind. What the teacher taught in the classroom at that time became the interpretation of the course ideas. But in the present time, curriculum is developed based on the activities of the students. It is the student-centered curriculum. It emphasize learning over teaching. The syllabus in the curriculum is based on the student’s activities, such as making small project samples, collecting materials and interpreting them.

Innovation of Evaluation

In old days, the assessment of the learning was determined by the marks obtained by the learner in the test which was conducted by the teacher. It explains the quantitative analysis, but the modern curriculum emphasizes the new evaluation functions. Eg: Continous Comprehesive Evaluation (CCE) and Continous Internal Assessment (CIA). Through these the activities of students are continuously evaluated on the basis of merit and number.